Condoms vs Abstinence for Public School Children Essay

Rush Limbaugh’s article, â€Å"Condoms: The New Diploma,† berates the common practice of distributing condoms to school children. The iconic conservative talk show host, who is blessed with â€Å"talent on loan from God,† uses forceful, colloquial arguments and analogies to warn against the messages and possible dire consequences that public school condom distribution can impart on America’s children. He confidently and stridently argues that condom distribution in the schools is a dangerous, immoral policy that tends to minimize or ignore the many possible negative effects of sex. Whether a school-age child wears a condom or not, Limbaugh states that the child is potentially exposing himself and his partner to AIDS, other sexually transmitted diseases, and pregnancy. Rush’s arguments are sound and persuasive but some of his analogies are far-fetched and extreme, and his righteous tone and attitude may be annoying to those who disagree with him. Limbaugh passionately states his arguments using simple words, messages and analogies. His central premise, that â€Å"abstinence works every time it is tried,† is an irrefutable fact. That is, when a person engages in sexual abstinence she is certain to avoid the negative possible consequences of sex which include pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases including the deadly AIDS virus. On the other hand, Limbaugh minimizes the fact that many school children are going to engage in sexual activities regardless of what they are taught and regardless of whether they have easy access to condoms. Limbaugh attacks what he sees as the absurd policy of using public tax dollars to purchase and distribute condoms in public schools. To demonstrate that absurdity, he uses some extreme analogies that are far-fetched and absurd themselves. These plain-spoken, simplistic analogies include providing â€Å"safe, untainted drugs every morning in home room,† and â€Å"packs of low-tar cigarettes to the students for their after-sex smoke. † He goes farther to the extreme as he advocates that public schools should â€Å"convert study halls to Safe Sex Centers,† and that these schools should also â€Å"put disease-free hookers† in these centers. These suggestions are obviously facetious, but Mr. Limbaugh employs them to harshly illuminate and expose what he sees as the wrong-headed, immoral, dangerous policy of condom distribution within schools. He thinks that condom distribution serves to condone and legitimize sexual activity among minors just as providing free illicit drugs to children would legitimize that dangerous, immoral activity. Limbaugh hammers home his point simply and starkly when he asks, â€Å"Would you knowingly have sex with anyone who has AIDS with only a condom to protect you from getting the disease? † He believes the policy of public school condom distribution, funded by taxpayers like him, promotes and legitimizes that possibly deadly scenario for young, careless children who do not care about or comprehend the long-term consequences of their casual sexual activity. But, he fails to point out that these same careless children will be more at risk of contracting AIDS or getting pregnant if they do not use a condom during sexual intercourse. His absolute views and arguments are persuasive, but his presentation is unbalanced and he might be seen by some readers as pompous and arrogant. Whether you love him or hate him, Rush Limbaugh confidently and unapologetically conveys his conservative, moral opinions on the dangers of public school condom distribution programs. He believes that this policy is â€Å"symptomatic of the larger moral decline in our societal values,† and that â€Å"free condom distribution in public schools can be a matter of life and death. † Despite some of his extreme and ridiculous analogies, Rush persuasively and emotionally advocates that sexual abstinence is the right policy for school children and that condom distribution is simply wrong and immoral.

Gender Roles Edgar Allen Poe Essay

In the 1800s there was a widely accepted ideology of what characteristics made up a woman and a man. The man was supposed to be reasonable, rational, and unaffected by his emotions. Women, on the other hand, were the exact opposite: irrational and completely taken over by emotion. Poe did not necessarily reverse these roles in all of his works, but he definitely toyed with them, giving the majority of his characters the characteristics of both men and women of the time. In Poe’s â€Å"Annabel Lee† both the persona and his lover seem womanly, â€Å"But we loved with a love that was more than a love- I and my Annabel Lee† (lines 9-10). They are both overtaken by such an intense affection and love for one another that it is more than a love. This could mean that they worshipped or were even obsessed with each other. Such an immense passion was typically only seen in woman during this time. Also, the narrator blames the death of Annabel Lee on the angels, who were, â€Å"†¦not half so happy in Heaven† and â€Å"went envying her and me† (21-22). Angels do not get jealous. This statement shows the immaturity of the narrator who, as a man, should be sophisticated in all of his ways. Towards the end of the poem another womanly characteristic arises in him, irrationality. Even after the death of Annabel Lee their souls are inseparable. His inability to let go leads the narrator to venture out each night and sleep next to the woman he loves so dearly. In reality, no person of sound mind would ever choose to sleep next to a rotting corpse night after night. In â€Å"Ligeia† Poe did indeed flip the roles of men and women. Although Ligeia does have a â€Å"†¦placid cast of beauty† and a certain eloquence in her voice, these seem to be her only womanly characteristics (pg. 644). She is not very emotional; in fact she is even described in the first paragraph as having â€Å"adapted to deaden impressions of the outside world.† The only time she does show some sort of emotion is towards the end of her life, when she would â€Å"†¦pour out before me the overflowings of a heart whose more than passionate devotion amounted to idolatry† (648). Up until now the only feelings that were evident were those of the narrator. Poe also makes clear Ligeia’s obvious intellectual dominance over her husband in the following line, â€Å"I was sufficiently aware of her infinite supremacy to resign myself, with a childlike confidence, to her guidance through the chaotic world†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (pg. 647). This line is very important when discussing gender roles because not only does the narrator admire Ligeia’s immeasurable intelligence, but he looks up to her for guidance through life and the acquisition of knowledge, which is the opposite of a stereotypical marriage during the nineteenth century. He also describes himself as childish which carries along with it the connotation of immaturity and naivety, characteristics typical of women according to the society Poe lived in. Although this paper only discusses two of Poe’s numerous literary works it is evident that his idea of what differentiates a woman from a man was skewed from that of society during the time period in which he lived. Women in Poe’s mind were sagacious, rational, and strong willed. Men, on the other hand, tended to be more womanly than the women, allowing themselves to be engulfed by their emotions and showing little to no rationality. Works Cited Poe, Edgar Allan. â€Å"Annabel Lee.† The Norton Anthology of American Literature. 8th edition. Nina Baym, Robert S. Levine, Julia Reidhead, Carly Frasier Doria. Crawfordsville, IL: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc, 2012. Print. Poe, Edgar Allan. â€Å"Ligeia.† The Norton Anthology of American Literature. 8th edition. Nina Baym, Robert S. Levine, Julia Reidhead, Carly Frasier Doria. Crawfordsville, IL: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc, 2012. Print.

American Political Arena and Labor Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American Political Arena and Labor - Term Paper Example There is no unity and consensus between the union leaders. The most panic event is while labor has played a major role in U.S. politics for at least 70 years, union workers are not united in their political choices. In "Race, God, and Guns: Union Voting in the 2004 Presidential Election," Donald Beachler explains that a substantial percentage of white union members vote for Republican candidates. 37% of voters in union households in 2000 and 40% in 2004 voted for Republican candidates. Again, 46.8% of white voters in union households voted for President Bush in 2004. From a practical point of view, due to some inherent beliefs and rituals like abortion, gay rights, gun control and prayer in school, many white workers prefer the Republican party and choose themselves to be turned as Republican. Again, once it was unimaginable in the south to think that any party except the Democratic party would win the majority or secure the mandate of the people. But, historically, after Democratic President Lyndon Johnson pushed through the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act in 1964-65, the Republican Party has had great success in becoming the party that most southern whites identify with. Democratic politicians have some inherent traits.  It is an established practice in America that No Democratic candidate can ever completely disavow unions, but Clinton's strategy was to distance himself from unions and to embrace the conservative economic policies of the Democratic Leadership Council in order to appeal to suburban white middle-class and upper-class voters. The Democratic leaders are also seen to be rigorously prone to social welfare and economic reforms rather to adopting strategies spoiling the force of the country's economy.  Ã‚  

Walmart case study ( growth strategy) Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Walmart ( growth strategy) - Case Study Example It has started doing this by seeking investors in those nations as well as utilizing e-commerce to compete with other businesses as well. The strategy may take a while but it is on the right path according to the leaders in charge of the international markets (Banjo, 2014). Lastly, there is the ecosystem growth strategy that is aimed at linking the Walmart supercenters with their smaller stores and even offers delivery after ordering through the mobiles (DePillis, 2013). This will compete with the dollar stores and ensure to retain their customers in the lower chain while not compromising their high-ended customers. This is also still in the initial stage of development but it sounds like a growth strategy that will bring them back into the limelight and help bring up their sales once again. Banjo, Shelly. â€Å"Wal-Marts Strategy to Jump Start Growth in China.† The Wall Street Journal, August 5th, 2014. Retrieved from: http://online.wsj.com/articles/wal-marts- strategy-to-jump-start-growth-in-china-1407252531 DePillis, Lydia. â€Å"Here’s Walmart’s new strategy for being your everything.† The Washington Post, October, 17th, 2013. Retrieved from:

Informative or Persuasive Speech Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Informative Persuasive - Speech or Presentation Example They’ve been controversial since their start: People have protested being searched, saying, â€Å"I haven’t done anything wrong. Why on earth are you searching me?† They have been protesting the time it takes and the fact that the body scanner reveals†¦ well, a little more than they ever wanted to show. In the year 2009, airport body scanners were suggested as a way to increase airport security. The unsuccessful bombing on Christmas day was no doubt what scared many airport personnel and travelers in the United States into thinking that they were necessary. Forty scanners had already been purchased for ports around the United States. Some specific airports that had scanners by 2009 were the JFK airport, the Phoenix airport, and the LA airport. On New Years’ day, 2011, we knew that things would be changing for our nation. One of the things that changed was airport security: over 159 scanners have been purchased and are awaiting installment in various a irports. The question is: How would you feel about having someone rush over to you and say, â€Å"You’ve been called out of line. ... This is designed to ensure security, and to ensure nothing is being snuck in the airport. It does not portray a Two-D image of any sort. It does, however, create a three D scanner, which security personnel can use to see whether or not you are sneaking onto the airplane. Our second option is less complex. It’s called the â€Å"backscatter X-ray.† What it does is it takes a 2-D image of the front and back of the individual that is being scanned, and it creates and rotates that movement. The X-ray takes a 2-D image of the front and back of the person. It is much like an X-Ray technology. [Slide X shows the process that the airport scanners go through.] There are many pros to this technology, despite the protests about the scanner. For one, for instance, we are able to see what is being snuck across airplane borders. This is great, because not everyone is truthful with what they are taking across the borders. The airport technology will no doubt help prevent another attack such as September 11, 2011. These airport security scanners are designed to reveal everything under the clothes, preventing anyone from being able to sneak things through. It is able to show both metallic and non metallic weapons. It is also able to show guns, knives, plastic, explosives, and many other items. The body scanners reveal items that a simple pat down would miss. Many people protest the scanners because there are other options. â€Å"Why don’t you just pat me down?† They ask. However, a simple pat down can miss hidden objects, may be against regulations in some cultures, and are known for â€Å"being touching†, something many women have found to be inappropriate. Another alternative – dogs – can only help so much. Swabs can detect chemicals and explosives, but

Analyze the statements of each speaker. What does each statement imply Essay

Analyze the statements of each speaker. What does each statement imply regarding their views on the following legal philosophica - Essay Example George Wallace was the 45th Governor of Alabama and he was strongly in favor of segregation laws. He held opposite opinions from Luther King Jr. on human rights and believed that it was right for white and colored men to be treated differently. His opinion on civil movements was also not pleasing for civil rights activist. He called for an end to these movements. King’s views on Legal Philosophical Issues Natural law is the law that is based on human inclination or nature (Rothbard, M. 2011). Positive laws are manmade laws that are based on the fact that human beings are not inherently moral or rational so laws are required to govern them. Martin Luther King considered natural law to be more legitimate than positive laws. King considered the positive laws of segregation to be incoherent with natural law of freedom and justice. He said â€Å"We can never be satisfied as long as our children are stripped of their self-hood and robbed of their dignity by signs stating: ‘Fo r Whites Only.’† (Luther King Jr.). Segregation was supported by law and King argued against it because he thought it was against the natural laws of freedom. Luther King Jr. was of the opinion of St. Augustine that ‘unjust law is no law’ (MacDonald Jr. 2010). ... Law should be used to promote the common good as argued by King. He believed that it was our duty to follow the just laws. Just laws promote the common good among people by listening to the all groups of the society. He says in his speech â€Å"Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice† (Luther King Jr.). So he argues that laws should be changed. When he argues that laws should be changed he must believe that laws can be used to promote common good of the people. Martin Luther King Jr. believed in the non violent ways of protest. He was inspired by Gandhi and his philosophy of non violence. He believed that violence is not justified even if it is done to achieve a just claim. He said specifically â€Å"In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds† (Luther King Jr.). This clearly explains his non violent ideas. He strongly believed that harm done to people even in the course of protest for a just cause is not justified. The legal philosophy of King was to achieve the aims through peaceful protests and not physical violence. King viewed the role of autonomy to be great in determining aims of law. Autonomy was promised by the ancestors of America but this was not given to the black Americans. In his opinion aims of law were to promote autonomy but later on the society developed its own biases and prejudices. State intervention is argued by Stuart Mill but only in cases where a person inflicts harm or danger to the society (Dogan, A. 2006). King sees paternalism as undesirable as it hinders in achieving the aim of law and that is to promote freedom. Morality plays a role in determining aims of law according to Luther King Jr. The aims

Information Technology Applications in Marketing Essay

Information Technology Applications in Marketing - Essay Example This is because digital media has numerous advantages like: search ability, speed, marketing interface and perhaps most importantly, data feedback. Digital media, therefore, transcends the constraints posed by physical media and incorporates the best of personal interactivity. More importantly, digital print has been known to reduce incremental cost of production, as well as, that of content acquisition and distribution. The reason why print media is dying is because every newspaper pays writers to acquire publishing content. This makes it difficult to compete with digital media, since the latter provides free content. In the past, printed media was the most influential platform for acquisition of information since there was no other basis of doing so. At the present time, numerous individuals have resorted to electronic media like websites, e-newspapers, and online television, among others. This has led to a huge drop in newspaper circulation for the past ten years. However, this do es not mean that print media is completely obsolete because up to today there are loyal readers that prefer to get news from newspapers and other print media (Reid, n.pag). This is a notion opposed by Josefowicz (n.pag)who insists that print media is bound to die owing to poor reception and increasing popularity of digital media at all societal levels. The principal sector likely to bear the brunt of print media deterioration is that will journalism. A journalist is forced to acquire distinctive information because the internet is a threat for print media. Despite the extensive efforts of acquiring information, it is made available to people who can easily access or even download it for free. For this reason, the print industry has to lower its cost in order to sustain competition in the news industry, and this will inevitably cause its failure and that of journalism. People have always paid for monthly subscriptions for newspaper or other print media like magazines. Currently, howe ver, individuals can acquire information free of charge from the internet, a principal predicament that is shaking the print media companies financially, because they do not have the capability to offer free information. However, as Josefowicz (n.pag) states, the internet is the big problem, but in some cases it can be utilized as a solution. Print media companies can earn revenue by borrowing the internet’s business model for increasing advertising. Nevertheless, print media is still effective and in some cases it holds a variety of advantages over digital media. For instance, print media offers tangibility, an element not available in digital media. This is crucial; magazines or newspapers can be preserved for future reference, while it is possible for internet advertisements or information to get lost into the cyber space under circumstances like virus attacks. Additionally, print media has credibility owing to its sense of legitimacy. This is due to the fact that informat ion is acquired by competent journalists, and is reviewed by editors before being unveiled to the public. This is unlike in digital media where virtually everyone can gain access to information and deliver it in a manner that lacks credibility. Content Marketing Content marketing refers to a promotion method of collecting as well as distributing

Bbc story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bbc story - Essay Example However, due to the advancement in technology, there are many options for people to select from the sources of news. Besides TV, radio, and newspapers, there is now internet which provides the latest news at any given time of the day free of cost. This increasing trend has forced the companies to focus just as much on their online presence. The newspaper industry is losing audience to the internet as people are no longer willing to pay for news that they can easily access online for free. Thus, in order to survive, the news companies are not spending big amount to maintain audience both online and offline. A different strategy was adopted by all three of the news companies to compete with each other. BBC was quick in coming up with an online strategy given its vast audience. The company soon announced its decision to go â€Å"digital† under the leadership of Entwistle. The introduction of iPlayer proved to be quite successful both, for the network as well as the VOD market (Andrews, 2012). The main strategy of the company was to focus on vision, audio and music, and digital future media division (Andrews, 2012). The global audience for BBC online is estimated to be 30 million (Horrocks, 2012). Guardian, on the other hand, completely embraced the online media and decided to become â€Å"a digital-first organization† in 2011 (The Guardian, 2011). The company announced that it will be posting complete material online and increase its investment in maintaining audience online as it is the future’s demand. The company is now focusing on reaching out to more people through internet and mobile phones and make efforts to improve its digital services since the entire newspaper industry has been suffering due to this major shift in use preferences (The Guardian, 2011). The guardian is presently the fifth most visited news site in the world with over 30 million online

Immorality of Excessive Gambling Essay Example for Free

Immorality of Excessive Gambling Essay Excessive gambling is immoral because it causes people to exhaust their resources on an activity with uncertain results which can result to bigger problems in the end. Those who gamble should practice moderation in their ways so that they will be able to avoid the possibilities of gambling dependency on one’s future and of drying-up one’s financial resources just to satisfy an earthly pleasure. Instead of going to casinos and playing card games on a regular basis, people should only do so as a pastime so that they can a lot most of their time to more rewarding activities that are certain to compensate for their efforts. If a person gambles too much, the tendency of the individual is to use most—if not all—of his financial resources just to satisfy his desire to gamble (Kusyszyn, 1984). An excessive gambler does not mind if the odds of winning are small compared to the odds of losing. Moreover, an excessive gambler no longer minds if the money he has gambled has already reached to amounts that are already way beyond the ordinary. The excessive gambler, therefore, is so devoted to spending a luxurious amount in the hopes of winning his bet which, if he did win, he will then again use to gamble. While the case of an excessive gambler is not always beyond repair, the damages that his deeds can inflict not only to himself but also to his family can certainly alter the course of their lives for the worse, if not the worst. For one, financial debt can never be far behind because an excessive gambler will find ways just to fuel his addiction—including loans either from lending institutions or other people. This will certainly affect the financial security of himself and of his family. Another thing is that excessive gambling can lead to loss of time for work and for the family. If the excessive gambler losses time for his work, there is a great chance that he will be losing his job which can cut-off his or his family’s source of income. The loss of time for the family is also negative consequence because it causes family members to lose emotional bond. If the gambler is a father, there is the risk that his children will no longer see him as a fatherly figure or, probably worse, they may reach the point where they will no longer miss his presence in the household while he is out in the casinos gambling. More importantly, excessive gambling is immoral because it takes away the opportunity for families to develop and grow in many ways. Instead of spending the money on gambling, the money could have been better spent on household furniture, on paying monthly bills, family vacation and other things that could have brought the family closer together. The latter options are certainly the better options to take instead of gambling too much. The omission of these good options in exchange for the worse option is certainly not a moral thing to do when the person could have just chosen the option that was primarily beneficial to everybody in the household and its future. From a utilitarian perspective, disregarding the option that maximizes benefits to the most number of individuals concerned is not the moral thing to do (Freeman, 1994). Thus, excessive gambling is immoral from a utilitarian standpoint. Aristotle’s philosophy of moderation suggests that human beings should avoid the extremes because the excess and the deficiency of anything are vices whereas the moderation of it is considered to be a virtue (Yu, 1998). The same principle can be applied to contemporary gambling. For example, an individual’s deficiency of playing slot machines in casinos or anywhere else where there ways to gamble is considered as a vice. On the other hand, spending too much time, attention and resources on playing poker in a Las Vegas casino is also considered to be a vice. The best option that should be taken is a moderate gambling practice because, according to Aristotle, the moderate way is the virtuous way which can lead to the good life. Instead of going regularly to casinos or spending more time in the race track than in the household, the excessive gambler should practice moderating his addiction. He can instead cut the time and money he is spending on his vices and devote more of them to his family. He can also choose to work harder in the office or spend more time with his children so that he will have less time for gambling. The bright side to that is that he becomes less of a person addicted to gambling while being more of a normal person at the same time. The point is not to siphon all of your time, resources and attention to gambling as it deprives you of some of life’s better activities. It does not mean, however, that the person should altogether abandon gambling. The thing is that gambling can still be a part of a person’s life, only that this time around gambling is no longer an addiction but rather a leisurely activity spent for pastime. In fact, moderate gambling can be a source of emotional bond for family members especially for the adult parents. For instance, a couple can decide to go on vacation in Las Vegas and spend a bit of time and money in a casino where they can play together for fun. If they lose, not much is lost because the primary goal was to establish more emotional bond together. If they win, however, their financial winnings can be considered as mere ‘bonuses’ to their primary intent. This perhaps best explains why gambling can also be a good deed so long as it is within moderate limits. It is easy to see and understand why excessive gambling is immoral. For the most part, it is a menace that tears down family bond and deprives people of spending their lives on better activities. Although excessive gambling is immoral, the moderation of gambling can still be considered as a good thing for it can also bring families closer together. References Freeman, S. (1994). Utilitarianism, Deontology, and the Priority of Right Utilitarianism, Deontology, and the Priority of Right. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 23(4), 313-349. Kusyszyn, I. (1984). The Psychology of Gambling. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 474, 133-145. Yu, J. (1998). Virtue: Confucius and Aristotle. Philosophy East and West, 48(2), 323-347.

Interview of a Presbyterian Church Member Essay Example for Free

Interview of a Presbyterian Church Member Essay The Presbyterian Church was founded during the 16th century during the Protest Reformation. Much of the teachings and philosophies began with John Calvin (1509-1564). Currently, the Presbyterian Church (USA), is based in Louisville, Kentucky and has about 2. 4 million members belonging to 11,100 congregations. The church also has about 14,000 ordained and active ministers. The Presbyterian Church belongs to the Presbyterian family of Churches which also includes the Reformed churches synonymous with the Calvinist tradition. In the U. S. A. , the first church was organized in 1706 and the first general assembly in 1789. The church as it stands today was the result of the reunification of the two main branches of the Presbyterian Church separated since the Civil War. The church has membership in all fifty states and Puerto Rico. 1) What sacraments do you celebrate? What rituals do you perform? Our church primarily believes in two sacraments – the sacrament of baptism and the sacrament of communion. These are the only sacraments mentioned in the Bible. The only rituals performed are baptism for newborns and for those who newly converted to the Presbyterian Church’ faith. We have no rituals, other than attending a Sunday service performed by a minister in the church structure by congregation. We celebrate our faith through singing oftentimes accompanied by the choir and a sermon delivered by the minister. 2) What are some of your most common traditions? The Presbyterian Church still practices what was started and rooted in the Bible’s teachings. We do have a general assembly that outlines our mission and goals for specific activities that the church members will undertake for a specified period of time. We abide by the decisions passed during the general assembly. We do missions inside and outside the country, more specifically in East Asia, Africa and other continents – wherever our mandates take us. We basically do preaching, teaching and healing – following Christ when he advocated for the poor, the hungry and the oppressed. 3) What beliefs distinguish your denomination from others? The Presbyterian Church (U. S. A. ) is distinctly a confessional and a connectional church, distinguished by the representation of elders-laymen and laywomen-in its government. Our church is also distinct in adhering to a separate religious thought known as Reformed Theology and a more â€Å"democratic† and representational church leadership that is now known as the General Assembly. 4) How was your church founded? Approximately twenty years after martin Luther King posted his list of 95 grievances on a Roman Catholic Church door in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517, a French/Swiss theologian name John Calvin refined the reformers’ manner and way of thinking about God and humankind’s relationship with God. This refined way of thinking became the basis for the foundation of the Presbyterian Church. 5) Who is the head of your church? The General Assembly meets and outlines the specific activities and guidelines for all its congregations to follow. The General Assembly consists of elders chosen by the people. The word Presbyterian means â€Å"elder† in Greek. The chosen elders exercise leadership, government, discipline and have responsibilities for the duration of the congregation. The body of elders elected to govern a particular congregation is called a session. According to the Book of Order G-6. 0302: â€Å"When elected commissioners to higher governing bodies, elders participate and vote with the same authority as ministers of the Word and Sacrament, and they are eligible for any office†¦The session is the smallest, most local governing body. The other governing bodies are presbyteries, which are composed of several churches; synods, which are composed of several presbyteries; and the General Assembly, which represents the entire denomination. Elders and ministers who serve on these governing bodies are also called presbyters. † 6) What is the role of women in your church? The Presbyterian Church adheres to the equal sharing of servitude as well as leadership to women. Women can serve as elders, deacons and head of committees. The first ordination women elders occurred in 1962 and the first ordained women ministers began as early as 1965. 7) Have you been a life-long member of your church? If you converted, can you tell me why? I was born to conservative Catholic parents. I was baptized as a Catholic but while in College, I joined a social service organization that provides services to the marginalized people in the rural areas. That was when I met a friend who introduced me to the Presbyterian way of â€Å"reformed thinking†. From then on, I closely read the Bible and everything that was taught to me since I was born, like John Calvin, I began to question. More discussions with my friend made me a convert. 8) What happens during a typical worship service? There are similarities and differences between a Catholic service and the Presbyterian worship service. The Catholic Church has prescribed a set of ceremony that begins when a priest would enter the church with his assistants or what we call altar boys. There is a set book of sermon that the priest goes over. There is also a time for communion. But in the Presbyterian Church worship service; there is more open discussion of the scriptures. The minister can provide insights and there is a more joyful environment to worship God and his teachings. The ambience is so much different. Presbyterian Church members sing their praise to God. There is no â€Å"nagging† ceremony and no confessional to attend to before partaking of the â€Å"Body of Christ†. A Sunday worship is determined by the pastor, and the session, the church’s governing body. It usually includes a combination of prayer, music, Bible reading and a sermon based upon scripture. There is also a personal response and offering and community concerns are shared as part of the worship process. 9) Do you believe those from other faiths can have salvation, or go to heaven? Yes, it is possible. John Calvin believed in predestination. We chose God because he chose us first. Hence, we cannot judge who among us will be saved or who will go to heaven because that is a judgment reserved for God only. He alone knows who will be saved. 10) What are your views of the afterlife? I believe that there is life after death but only by the grace of God and through faith. 11) How does your faith interpret the Bible? For Presbyterians, the Bible is the means by which we, as Christians can come to understand the presence of God since the beginning of time. By understanding and learning the scriptures, we can then know of God’s love, eternal goodness and constant forgiveness of our sins. 12) How often does the church call upon you to pray? How often do you pray each day? The church exhorts church members and believers to pray as much as we can – either by praying aloud, in community with others or as much as we need to. It basically depends how much an individual’s needs. 13) What does the Presbyterian seal mean or symbolize? The church seal is the symbol of the church heritage, identity and its mission. The symbols embedded in the seal are the cross, Scripture, dove and the flames. The more prominent symbol in the seal is the cross. It represents the love of God through Jesus Christ, through his sacrifice and resurrection. 14) What are your views on abortion, alcohol, and capital punishment? The 217th General Assembly of the church clarified the position on problem pregnancies and abortion. The position paper basically states that the matter of abortion is ultimately the woman’s decision. The church though appeals to all members of the church to surround problematic women contemplating decision on a problematic pregnancy with love and support. The church clarified further that on matters of health concerns that is complicated by pregnancy; they encourage the safe delivery of both the mother and the child (during late term pregnancies). With regards alcohol consumption, the general assembly of the church â€Å"does not advocate the prohibition of alcohol, a policy which would appear to attribute the entire problem to alcohol itself. Responsible and non-problematic uses of alcohol have been part of human experience and the Judeo-Christian heritage since the beginning of recorded history†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ; however, the church advocates voluntary abstinence from alcohol consumption. With regards the issue of capital punishment, the most recent statement in 1985 reaffirmed the church’s position on its continuing opposition to capital punishment. 15) What are your views on sin and do you believe that God punishes humans for sins they commit? Humans are born to err and sin. But the God that I know is not vengeful. God is a forgiving God that bestows forgiveness even to those who err in their ways. The repercussions of our actions or sins on earth are enough punishment for us humans. As a conclusion give a paragraph reflection of the denomination as well as a contrast/ comparison between this denomination and Catholicism. In conclusion, the Presbyterian Church as â€Å"refined† by the studies of John Calvin deviated and differed from the Catholic Church in a lot of ways. These are as follows: 1. Presbyterians do not have a single head of Church. We do not have a pope. We have a congregation or assembly of elders whom our communities of members have chosen. 2. We do confessions by ourselves and believe that through the grace of God, and through submission of our confessions to God, we are forgiven. The Catholic Church requires confession of an individual to a priest. 3. Women are treated as equals and can be equally ordained as ministers and chosen as an elder. 4. The interpretation of the Bible is not â€Å"mystically† interpreted but through careful analysis and through scholarly studies. 5. Prayer and worship is done either individually or in community with other Presbyterian Church members – in joyful celebration of the grace and love of God. Works Cited: [1] Presbyterian Church website (USA) http://www.pcusa.org/

The History Of Indian Diplomacy Politics Essay

The History Of Indian Diplomacy Politics Essay Indian Parliament-the citadel of Indian constitution represents the vim vigor and vitality of Indian democracy. The constitution of our country places supreme authority in the parliament. The parliamentary executive solely governs and conditions not only the domestic but also the foreign affairs of the country. In India the executive authority of conducting foreign affairs is shared by the President, the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the Minister of External Affairs. The executive power of the union is vested in the president who, in accordance with the Constitution of India, conducts the diplomatic policy of the state. As the head of the state, the President, is formally in charge of foreign affairs; the real authority rests, however, in the Prime Minister and the council of Ministers. Moreover Since the diplomatic relation of the country plays an important role in designing the visage of a country in terms of socio-politico-economic growth, the Parliament which represents the asp irations of Indian electorate masses is more or less responsible for the Diplomatic outlook of the State. The evolution of a democratic form of government in a country like India, which has little experience in the art of diplomacy and diplomatic service, is significant because unlike the monarchial and military regimes prevalent in most newly independent countries, Indias Diplomatic and Foreign Affairs machinery is responsible to an elected legislature modeled after the British Parliament. The responsibility to the parliament imposes certain obligations upon the Administration in defense of national interests which cannot be undermined by any powerful domestic groups or foreign agencies. The initiation of foreign policy is the prerogative of the council of ministers whose members are appointed by the President upon the advice of the Prime Minister. The Ministers are the elected representatives of people sitting in either house on the parliament. The democratically elected political executive and Parliament are held solely responsible for the formulation and implementation of foreign and defence polices. On the basis of this logic, the Constitution makers had clearly defined and demarcated jurisdictional boundaries by assigning foreign and strategic policy making roles only to the central government and limited the role of regional-state governments to deal with local law and order and developmental activities. So, in the more than six decades of post-Independence phase of democracy, foreign and defence policies have been pursued by the central government on the basis of its perceptions of national interests. 1.1 Indias Global Position India has formal diplomatic relations with most nations; it is the worlds second most populous country, the worlds most-populous democracy and one of the fastest  growing major economies  in the world.  With the worlds seventh largest military expenditure,  ninth largest economy by nominal rates and third largest by purchasing power parity, India is a regional power and a  potential superpower. Indias growing international influence gives it a prominent voice in global affairs. It has moved beyond its traditional interest in South Asia to a greater involvement in East Asia. India is a  newly industrialized country, it has a long history of collaboration with several countries and is considered a leader of the  developing world.  India was one of the founding members of several  international organizations, most notably the United Nations, the  Asian Development Bank,  G20 industrial nations  and the founder of the  Non-aligned movement. India has also played an important and influential role in other international organizations like  East Asia Summit  World Trade Organization,  International Monetary Fund  (IMF),  G8+5 and  IBSA Dialogue Forum.  Regionally, India is a part of  SAARC and  BIMSTEC. India has taken part in several  UN peacekeeping missions  and in 2007, it was the second-largest troop contributor to the United Nations.  India is currently seeking a permanent seat in the  UN Security Council, along with the  G4 nations. With the worlds seventh largest landmass, second largest population, third largest army and the fourth largest economy in PPP terms, India already stands as a leader among nations. But what strikes people across the globe most is that despite its incredible diversity of race, religion, language, etc. and the immense challenges posed by the poverty and illiteracy of a large segment of its population, India has been a remarkable example of a country seeking to resolve the multifarious and complex issues before it through an active and participatory democratic process. Fifteen general elections and innumerable state and local level elections later, Indias credentials as the worlds largest democracy are universally recognized. Indeed, Indias general elections are viewed in awe as the biggest organized human exercises in history.  In his address to both the Houses of the Indian Parliament on 8 November 2010, the US President, Barack Obama, had paid the country a great tribute, Its no co incidence that India is my first stop on my visit to Asia, or that this has been my longest visit to another country after becoming President. For in Asia and around the world, India is not simply emerging, India has emerged. 1.2 History of Indian Diplomacy Foreign policy used to be the exclusive domain of the diplomats and soldiers before the rise of representative democracy. It used to be conducted by the elite in a complete secrecy and without taking their respective publics into confidence. The history of the European diplomacy until the two World Wars has been replete with the making of secret treaties with other powers without the knowledge of their publics. However the evolution of the democratic system has changed this completely, bringing democratic institutions such as the parliament, the media, various interest groups, and the public opinion into picture. Executive branch of government is no longer completely independent both in the formulation and implementation of the foreign policies. The very existence of these institutions serves as a major deterrent for the rulers who have to be very careful in the making of the policy. They have to be accountable to their respective publics which exercise their control through these de mocratic institutions. The diplomatic policy of a country is not just carved out of the present political situation. Their roots go far back in history. They are interlaced with the national character of the people, geographical position and the historical relations with the neighboring countries. From time immemorial people have entered India (settlers, traders, looters, conquerors) bringing in a variety of cultures to this ancient land. The different cultures diffused and were assimilated to form present cultural patterns. It was this assimilated culture that permeated south and south east Asian countries, areas designated by historians as Greater India. This cultural assimilation is significant because India enjoyed somewhat a central position in the then civilized Afro-Eurasian world, extending from china to Mesopotamia, Greece and Africa. Indian vessels sailed in the Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea. A well organized trade from the shores of Nile, Oxus and Tigris to the bank of Ind us existed in the Second millennium B.C. The way of living, eating habits, types of dresses and methods of worship, indicate the similarity of traditions between the people of Greece and Rome and the people of India. Diplomatic relations have therefore existed between India and the King of Mitanni(middle east) goes back to 1400 B.C, illustrating the fact that nations at such a early period of history maintained diplomatic contacts. Owning to the Indian philosophy of Truth and Non-violence ,Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi as prime ministers followed the policy of non-alignment with two power blocs in the post-world war phase of the international structure of power. The collapse of the USSR meant this bipolarity in international relations was replaced by a unipolar global order and India adjusted and adapted its foreign and defence policies accordingly. Even before independence, the Government of  British India  maintained semi-autonomous diplomatic relations. It had colonies (such as the  Aden Settlement), sent and received full diplomatic missions,  and was a founder member of both the  League of Nations  and the United Nations.  After India gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, it soon joined the  Commonwealth of Nations  and strongly supported independence movements in other colonies, like the  Indonesian National Revolution. During the  Cold War, India adopted a foreign policy of  not aligning  itself with any major  power bloc. However, India developed close  ties with the Soviet Union  and received extensive military support from it. Jawaharlal Nehru, Indias first  Prime Minister, promoted a strong personal role for the Prime Minister but a weak institutional structure. Nehru served concurrently as Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs; he made all major foreign policy decisions himself after consulting with his advisers and then entrusted the conduct of international affairs to senior members of the Indian Foreign Service. He was the main founding father of the Panchsheel or the five principles of peaceful co-existence. His successors continued to exercise considerable control over Indias international dealings, although they generally appointed separate ministers of external affairs. Indias second prime minister,  Lal Bahadur Shastri  (1964-66), expanded the  Prime Minister Office  (sometimes called the Prime Ministers Secretariat) and enlarged its powers. By the 1970s, the Office of the Prime Minister had become the de facto coordinator and supraministry of the Indian government. The enhanced role of the office strengthened the prime ministers control over foreign policy making at the expense of the Ministry of External Affairs. Advisers in the office provided channels of information and policy recommendations in addition to those offered by the Ministry of External Affairs. A subordinate part of the office-the  Research and Analysis Wing  (RAW)-functioned in ways that significantly expanded the information available to the prime minister and his advisers. The RAW gathered intelligence, provided intelligence analysis to the Office of the Prime Minister, and conducted covert operations abroad. The prime ministers control and reliance on personal advisers in the Office of the Prime Minister was particularly strong under the tenures of  Indira Gandhi  (1966-77 and 1980-84) and her son, Rajiv (1984-89), who succeeded her, and weaker during the periods of coalition governments. Observers find it difficult to determine whether the locus of decision-making authority on any particular issue lies with the Ministry of External Affairs, the Council of Ministers, the Office of the Prime Minister, or the prime minister himself. . CHAPTER 2 2.1 CONSTITUTIONAL MANDATE India follows the British Constitutional model. Making foreign policy decisions is the function of the cabinet, which, in turn, is responsive as well as responsible to the opinions expressed in the Lok Sabha, Lower House of the Parliament in India. Since the cabinet can continue in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the Lower House, the decisions it takes and their execution must be such as are acceptable to the majority of members of the Lok Sabha. In the U.S. Constitution, the ratification of treaties and other international agreements by the Senate is mandatory, but in the Indian Constitution there is no such provision. In India, the ratification of treaties is done by the President. However, before the government concludes a treaty or an international agreement, it invariably consults the members of the Parliament. The Parliament has various devices to control the foreign policy. It may legislate on any matters pertaining to the foreign affairs, though in practice the Indian Parliament has engaged itself in very little legislation. It can exercise financial control through controlling the budgetary allocations. It can engage in deliberations by raising questions, passing resolutions, moving adjournment motions and debates on the foreign policy matters. The Indian Parliament exercises its control over foreign affairs through three committees: Consultative Committee of Parliament for the Ministry of External Affairs, the Estimate Committee and the Public Accounts Committee. The Consultative Committee provides a forum for informal discussion between the members of the Parliament and the Ministry of External Affair The membership of this committee is drawn both from the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, Upper House of the Parliament. Apart from the Consultative Committee, the Estimate Committee and the Public Accounts Committee indirectly influence the conduct of foreign relations as they make judgments and comments on the economy and the efficiency of the proposals sent by the Ministry of External Affairs. The essential part of the functions of the executive is to make international negotiations, treaties and agreements. Parliaments also have an important role to play in the matters of foreign affairs. Apart from the task of ratification of international treaties, enactment of laws and sanctioning of budgetary allocation to meet commitments on various treaties and agreements, Parliament also have the usual means of parliamentary check such as questions, various motions, resolutions, parliamentary committees, etc to discuss the foreign matters. In this way, they balance the efforts of the Governments in taking applicable stand at various forms on global issues which have direct or indirect consequence on national polity. In India, under article 246 of the Constitution of India, Parliament alone is conferred with powers to make laws with regard to foreign affairs; diplomatic, consular and trade representation; United Nations Organisati on; participation in international conferences, associations and other bodies and implementing of decisions made thereof; entering into treaties and agreements with foreign countries and implementing of treaties, agreements and conventions with foreign countries; foreign loans; trade and commerce with foreign countries, etc. Under article 253 of the Constitution, the Parliament of India is also vested with the power to make laws for the whole or any part of the territory of India for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other country or countries or any decision made at any international conference, association or other body. By virtue of article 73 of the Constitution the executive power of the Union extends to the matters with respect to which Parliament has power to make laws and to the exercise of such rights, authority and jurisdiction as are exercisable by the Government of India by virtue of any treaty or agreement; and article 53 vests the executive powe r of the Union in the President of India, exercisable either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the Constitution of India, the task of international negotiations including all activities relating to external assistance is essentially a part of the functions of the executive. The said tasks come under the jurisdiction of our Ministry of External Affairs, who concludes all treaties and agreements with the approval of the Cabinet. The views of all concerned Ministries are also taken into account before becoming a party to any such move. According to the present practice, the Parliament of India is kept fully informed of the initiatives by the Government in countrys foreign affairs. The copies of treaties and agreements are placed on the Table of the Houses of Parliament after the instruments of ratification are exchanged. Wherever necessary, the Government brings forward legislation or a motion to give effect to the provisions of a treaty and an agreemen t. If the provisions involve financial commitments, the matter comes up before Parliament in the form of budgetary demands. All these place Parliament and the parliamentarians in close proximity to foreign policy matters. Important matters of foreign affairs are often discussed on the floor of the House through various procedural devices also. Sometimes Resolutions are passed on the matters of crucial importance so as to reflect the collective will of the people and the nation. And0 there are several other channels such as the Departmentally Related Standing Committees including that on External Affairs through which Parliament gives its views and inputs to the Government. The Consultative Committees on External Affairs and those concerning to various other Ministries are yet another mode of involving Parliament and the members of Parliament in the task of countrys foreign matters. 2.2ROLE OF EXECUTIVE The Indian model gives near total freedom and autonomy to the executive and assumes a submissive Parliament which normally supports the government. The role of the Parliament is more of a general supervision and consultation depending upon the will of the government. Its advantages include flexibility, secrecy and relatively swift implementation of the foreign policy while the disadvantages include greater possibility of the abuse of power and trust of the people and erroneous judgments on the part of the government.The Indian Parliament is unique in its efficacy in expressing the central political value of our continental society. Indian domestic strength and foreign policy are directly related and public discussion of foreign policy options gives an advantage to the Government if it develops a strong and effective national commitment. A realistic conception of Parliaments role in foreign policy must underline the following points: First, members of Parliament have a relationship of partnership with the executive in providing an openly political dimension to the diplomatic activity and inner-administrative reasoning conducted by the Ministry of External Affairs. The legislative function cannot extend to the network of communications utilized by the Government to fulfil the countrys political and strategic interests, but it is only Parliament which can provide a full rationale for an integrated view of foreign and domestic policies. Second, Parliamentarians can if they wish encourage a problem-solving attitude by transcending cloistered mentalities which are developed in the course of international disputes and expressed in Cold War clichà ©s. Parliament can indeed function as an avant garde organization which seeks a widening of political opportunities both at home and abroad by visualizing foreign policy as an area of accommodation and legitimate compromise to clarify the consequences of new developments in scientific, technological, cultural and educational spheres, apart from the purely political and strategic developments. Thirdly, the consultative opportunities of Parliament provide a permanent effort to relate expertise in foreign affairs to a momentum based upon the thrust of the historical national experience. The Ministry of External Affairs on account of time constraints does not have many opportunities for the projection of long-term futures, but Parliament can enhance the capacity and resources of the nation to develop a consistent framework for thinking about the future of the Indian contribution to the world system. India has a parliamentary form of government based on universal adult franchise. The executive authority is responsible to the elected representatives of the people in the Parliament for all its decisions and actions. The Constitution of India states that the Indian Executive is the foremost branch of the Parliamentary form of government. The President, Vice President, Council of Ministers, Governor and Attorney General of India has played a greater role as far as executive branch is concerned. The President is the head of the state who is elected by the Electoral College which consist of both the houses Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha. The executive is the most important of the government in terms of its importance. Since we got our independence the executive branch has got its share of worth and recognition as a part of the government. It has been carrying out the most vital functions of executing the laws made by the legislature and also implementing. The competence of the government de pends upon the effective functioning of its policies by the executive. Whole of the administration revolves around the executive branch without which administration holds no importance. 2.2.1 Mode of Selection   The mode of selection varies from one country to another, Some executive are inherited the powers by virtue of being born in the royal family. This principle is followed in U.K., Nepal, Japan, Spain and many other Countries. The Chief executive is voted by the people. The election may be direct or indirect but secret voting is always carried out in one way or the other. The element of election makes the office democratic. More so the election is for a definite period which differs from Country to Country. U.S.A. and India offer examples of this type. There is another mode of selection of the executives is a process of nomination. The Governor Generals of Canada. New Zealand, Australia are nominated by British Crown. The Governors of Indian States are nominated by the President. Another process of selection is appointment by recruitment. The vast majority of the permanent or non-political executive in India or other Countries hailing from civil service are chosen on the basis of entra nce exam. 2.2.2 Functions   The functions of the executive in modern State are multifaceted and wide ranging. The compulsions of a welfare state, the pressures of an industrial society, the expectations from a positive state assign a variety of functions to the executive some of the important functions are discussed here implementation of laws and policies is the most essential part of the state administration of government. As head of the administration, he exercises a wide power of control over the personnel of the administrative service through his power to appoint, direct and remove his subordinates. The subordinates tend to work under his direction and supervision. Security of the country is of great importance; hence the executive performs certain functions so as to strengthen our security internally as well as externally. Such responsibilities increase many-fold when there is a war or internal riot, retaining political function is an important responsibility of the executive. Taking care of relationship with other States in the world constitutes an important function of the executive because the Countries grow in stature, technology and prosperity through mutual help and co-operation. Thus the executive through mutual relationship, with other States try to push through development and progress of its Country. The management of finance of the State is vital to the administration. The success or failure of the government largely depends on proper implementation of fiscal policy. The legislature controls the finance and grants funds to the executive. But it is the executive which very meticulously studies the needs of the administrative departments and finds out the ways and means to meet such expenses. It has the responsibility of preparing a budget which would be acceptable to the legislature. Once the budget is approved by the legislature the executive exercises tremendous control over its expenditure by the various departments. Law making comes under the domain of the legislature. But in practice it is found that the executive enjoys enormous legislative powers. In Parliamentary System the legislative responsibilities rest with the executive. The executive summons, prorogues and if need be dissolves the legislature. In the recess of both the Houses of Parliament the President of India can promulgate ordinance, which has the effect and force of law made by this legislature. The executive as per its requirement drafts and introduces legislative measures for adoption and gets it passed because of majority support. This undoubtedly has made the executive more powerful. The executive also discharges some judicial responsibilities. The right of pardon or mercy is executive power. The Heads of executives in many countries enjoy this power. For example the President of India can suspend, remit or commute sentences of any person convicted of offence. Similarly the President of the U.S.A. enjoys similar power. The executive in many states have also taken up the respon sibility of deciding cases having administrative implications. An analysis of the powers of the executive stated above clearly indicates the predominance of the executive over the legislature and the judiciary. The executive gradually started acquiring more and more power owing to the emergence of welfare activities of the states. The development of the executive into what may be called a multi functioning organ is highly significant. The real authority in both the developed and developing states have come to rest with the executive. This growth of concentration of power in the executive has opened door for criticism from all quarters. According to Lord Hewart it has led to a rise of New Despotism which has controlled the fate of so many by so few. But nevertheless executive tries to function in a more effective way keeping in mind the welfare of the public. 2.3 STANDING COMMITTE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS The Parliament of India transacts a great deal of its business through Committees, which are, in fact, microcosms and extensions of the Houses. The Committees have contributed a great deal in making the Parliament more effective in exercising control over and giving direction to the executive functioning and thereby making the executive more accountable. Apart from facilitating consideration of complex and technical issues in a non-partisan manner, which the House as a whole may find difficult to discuss, the Committee provide to the Members additional time for detailed deliberation on the legislative and financial business of the House. The Committee system in the Indian Parliament consists of various categories of Committees. Foremost among those are the Parliamentary Committees, which are appointed or elected by the House nominated by the Speaker, Lok Sabha or Chairman, Rajya Sabha. These Committees work under the overall directions of the Presiding Officers and as per rules of pr ocedure framed from time to time, present their reports to the concerned House or the Presiding Officer. The Secretariat is provided by one of the two Secretariats of Parliament.Foreign policy permits India to have an interaction with the world outside and the main aimof foreign policy is to provide protection of its national sovereignty and territorial integrity.Thus it helps to provide the much needed national security to the country which makes itthe most integral part of the administration. The Parliament has a two-fold control overforeign policy. Firstly, the Parliament has the power to reject, approve or modify the foreign policyframed by the executive. Secondly, it has general supervisory powers over the conduct offoreign affairs. To enable the parliament to play these, the executive has to place allrelevantinformation before it and keep it informed of the governments variousprogrammes, negotiations, treaties, agreements and other activities. 2.4 DEBATES ON FOREIGN POLICY The Indian Parliament has, in general, supported its governments positions on the foreign policy issues. However, sometimes it has shown strong disagreement on some position as well. For example, there has been a strong criticism of the governments policies during the Sino-Indian War of 1962. The record of the Parliamentary debateduring 1959-62 shows a lively debate on the issue and such an intense criticism of Krishna Menon, the Defence Minister, that he was virtually forced to resign from the job. Similarly, the Indian Parliament moved a resolution condemning the military action of the Pakistan Army during the East Pakistan Crisis in 1970-71 and urged the world to take note of the situation. The resolution went beyond the government policy and amounted to interference in the domestic affairs of another country. The Indian Parliament has in general shown a lot of activism on the foreign policy issues relating to Pakistan and China. At times, the Parliament members have also resigned from their membership in protest against the governments policy which was considered as too soft by them.Asubversive pragmatic vision is increasingly challenging some of thekey foundations of Indias traditional nationalist and left-of-centre foreign policy, diluting the consensus that shaped the policy, and raising new possibility esespecially for Indias relations with the United States and global nuclear arms control. This debate between two centrist foreign policy perspectives is not yet settled. The two are described here as traditional nationalist and pragmatist, with the former representing the established and dominant perspective, and the latter as the emerging challenger. Actual Indian policy mostly splits the difference, mouthing traditional nationalist (hereafter referred to as simply nationalist) slogans while following pragmatist prescriptions. One major result has been the widening of political space for closer relations with the United States, even without a stable con sensus. Indias economic growth, information technology prowess, and rising power have reshaped global perceptions of India and Indias perception of itself. A decade after Indias nuclear tests, Indias global relations have dramatically improved and New Delhi is increasingly wooed by major powers. Indian commentators have not been slow to notice that leaders from all of the permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) visited India in 2010.16 For nationalists, this was a recognition of Indias importance which called for a noiseless celebration. The possibility exists, however, that at least some of Indias strategic elite are inflating Indias capabilities and attractiveness. Yashwant Sinha, a senior Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)leader and former Minister for External Affairs, expressed this overconfidence well when he argued, in the context of the recent visit by President Obama to India, that the U.S. needs India more t han India needs the UnitedStates.18 For instance, the United States was forced to lift the sanctions it imposed on India after the 1998 Indian nuclear tests because these sanctions were causing more damage to the U.S. than India. This belief that India was so important that other powers would not standby futilely if India was invaded possibly even leading to a world war is presumably one of the reasons why Nehru thought that China would not attack India militarily in 1962. The sense of Indias intrinsic importance is also reflected in Indias push for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council.20Though all shades of foreign policy opinion in India broadly support a permanent seat for India, nationalists tend to emphasize such demands more Equity and Democratic Global Indias foreign policymaking and highlighted several issues that link together questions of policy objectives and policy tools. First, the extent of Indias ambitions in its home region, South Asia, is contested. One view is that India should be satisfied with a level of military capabilities that guarantees New Delhi security by ensuring that India would prevail in a conflict with any of its neighbours, should such a conflict arise. A more ambitious view is that New Delhi should not be satisfied with security alone and should instead seek to exercise influence over its neighbours. Second, the opponents of the idea that India should rely on hard power and military force do not only question the relative effectiveness of

Negative Impacts of Capitalism on Marginalised Social Groups Essay

Capitalism is the predominant political economic system in the developed world where citizens and companies are able to elect which goods and services to engender and how they will procure and disburse their earnings. It is highly based on private property and private profit however; the government controls some portions of the economy within nations. Although capitalism is beneficial for citizens in various ways, it also creates negative impacts on marginalised social groups due to uneven distribution of wealth. These communities have critiqued on capitalism as they debate that the economy system limits democracy, disobeys democratic principles of social justice and enables forms of human suffering and shortage in individual emancipation. These issues are further discussed in Greene’s (2003) studies as he examines how mega-events, slum clearance and global capital negatively impacts the lives of socially marginalised populations. Capitalism is an economic system driven by the endless pursuit of profits. In Seoul and Santo Domingo, however, capitalists believe that these benefits ...

Graduation Speech: The Great Ocean of Truth -- Graduation Speech, Comm

How simple life can be, how wonderful it is to take the time to appreciate your surroundings. The opportunities offered me during my four years at County High have been amazing. I have begun to understand all the potential I have to live life. I don't believe it takes a trip abroad to realize all we take for granted here in Hometown, USA. However, amongst the clutter that fills our lives, seldom do we choose to stop and reflect. Today is one day we intentionally set aside for the sentimentality we rarely experience. In only a few months, many of the graduates in front of you will leave home for universities, travel, or jobs. Today is not only your day to acknowledge our accomplishments, but also a time for us to acknowledge all you have given us. Having paid due appreciation to the relationship between each person in this room, whether teacher, friend, or family, I now address the 2012 graduating class. Of all the lessons learned in and out of school, the most important may still elude us. What have we really learned these 17 or 18 years? Perhaps if we consider this question... Graduation Speech: The Great Ocean of Truth -- Graduation Speech, Comm How simple life can be, how wonderful it is to take the time to appreciate your surroundings. The opportunities offered me during my four years at County High have been amazing. I have begun to understand all the potential I have to live life. I don't believe it takes a trip abroad to realize all we take for granted here in Hometown, USA. However, amongst the clutter that fills our lives, seldom do we choose to stop and reflect. Today is one day we intentionally set aside for the sentimentality we rarely experience. In only a few months, many of the graduates in front of you will leave home for universities, travel, or jobs. Today is not only your day to acknowledge our accomplishments, but also a time for us to acknowledge all you have given us. Having paid due appreciation to the relationship between each person in this room, whether teacher, friend, or family, I now address the 2012 graduating class. Of all the lessons learned in and out of school, the most important may still elude us. What have we really learned these 17 or 18 years? Perhaps if we consider this question...

How does the Internet Affect Young People? Essay

How does the Internet Affect Young People? There is a saying among the baby boomer generation, that if you want to learn how to use computers and the internet, go ask your grandchildren to teach you. An estimated 100% of all young people use computers with more than 90% regularly using the internet. Much of this internet use is tied to homework and websites needed to do research. However the internet is also the way most kids connect after school using social networks such as MySpace or Facebook. The kids communicate through chat rooms and emails, while also posting comments on their friends’ walls. Internet usage is so pervasive that many experts, scientists and psychologist have begun to study what effect it has on the lives of young people in general. With so much social action taking place from behind a computer screen, adults and teachers are concerned about the loss of social skills among young people. In other words, the ability to communicate up close and personal with friends and family is becoming extinct. Young people simply don’t know how to hold a conversation. Take away a kid’s cell phone or computer and they tend to withdraw, don’t know what to do with their hands, become sullen. Hours in front of a computer on the internet also lends to the obesity problem plaguing America and the rest of the world. And a lack of exercise isn’t the only physical problem. Eyesight wanes after long hours in front of a computer screen. Bad posture, and body pain can develop from long hours spent sitting, not the least of which is bad circulation in the legs. Many young people who spend a great of time in front of computer are beginning to show symptoms of disease and illness not usually seen until someone reac hes middle age or senior citizenship. There are also many upsides to time spent in front of a computer. Young people today are able to log on and talk to their counterparts growing up in other parts of the world. The internet literally opens up the possibilities of world culture them enabling them to understand and to appreciate diversity. Painfully shy people unable to hold a face to face conversations can go online and talk for hours with someone elsewhere in the world, who  may be in a similar situation at home. The internet enables young people to find answers to questions that they may not feel comfortable discussing with their parents and friends and teachers. An example of this might be sex education, which is only given cursory attention in most American schools. Some studies have even shown that young people who regularly use the computer have better reading skills, spatial skills and visual skills. The one drawback to being on the computer that it is done in isolation, away from the watchful eyes of parents. Some of the information accessed my not be good for young people. The younger mind may not be able to process the information correctly. Parents should keep a watchful eye without seeming to smother their growing child’s independence. Like all things in life, the internet is a two edged sword, one edge good, the other edge bad. Parents should use internet access as a teaching tool, helping their youngsters to understand the duplicity involved in life in general including the internet and the world wide web.

Ms. Valerie H Scott

Leader as Communicator August 24, 2014 While reflecting on my life experiences and how they have shaped or influenced my behaviors and attitudes, I must refer back to the life experiences of Howard Schultz, because ironically we share the same values that were a result of our similar life experiences. My father died when I was 11 months old soon to turn a year, therefore, I was raised by my mother, who chose never to remarry out of concern for re two younger daughters me and my sister, Peggy, who is six years older than I.We have an older sister who had long be married and raising her own family. My mother is a single uneducated parent raising two girls alone doing the best that she could to â€Å"make ends meet. † She did domestic work in an orphanage home for years and later landed a Job in the dietary department of a local Nursing Home in our hometown as a cook. Needless to say, the monies that my mother earned were minimum and as a result we were always struggling financia lly. There was hardly enough money for the bare necessities such as food and the other basic needs that are required for daily survival.Always feeling put down because I had less than other children who I thought had it all, I became determined in my heart that if I was ever given an opportunity to make a difference in the world, that I would become a nurturer of humanity. I believe strongly in humanity and human relations and that every person should be treated with dignity and respect and I have diligently remained true to this core value that I have held in my heart for years. It is a guiding force in my life along with my relationship with Christ.Like Howard Schultz, I adopted the of never leaving anyone behind† which has become a motivating factor in the way that I purpose to treat every person that crosses my past in my Journey on this earth. I am compelled to help people see their value through the eyes of God and to embrace this reality as their true identity. Accordin g to Terry Pearce in Leading Out Loud, there is a rare group of people that are willing and able to communicate with others using the raw eternal of their own conviction. Clearly, these leaders were courageous enough to communicate authentically from the basis of their real values, whether they were giving speeches, advocating a cause, writing memos, or conversing informally (p. 18). He further adds in his article, Communicate from the Inside Out, â€Å"Discovering what matters is the first and most critical piece of leadership development. † According to Pearce by have an understanding of defining moments in one's life facilitates an understanding of the values and experiences makes them care about their performance and the performance of the people they lead.

Understanding Change

PART ONE Understanding change Perspectives on change The ethics of organizational change Planned change and its critics Strategic change Building and developing competitive advantage 3 39 73 11 1 147 CHAPTER 1 Perspectives on change 1. 1 Introduction 1. 2 Perspectives on change 1. 2. 1 Modernity, progress, and change 1. 2. 2 Pathways to change 1. 3 Structural-functional change: changing structures and functions 1. 3. 1 An organization is a complex whole 1. 3. 2 Structural theory 1. Multiple constituencies: change by negotiation 1. 4. 1 Stakeholder interests 1. 5 Organizational Development: the humanistic approach to change 1. 5. 1 Intervention strategies at the individual level 1. 5. 2 Intervention strategies at the group level 1. 5. 3 Intervention strategies at the organizational level 1. 6 Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change 1. 6. 1 Conflict, flux, and change 1. 6. 2 People are active agents 1. 6. 3 The critique of the spectator view of knowledge 1. Summary Study q uestions Exercises Further reading References 4 6 6 7 8 13 16 18 20 22 24 24 25 28 28 29 30 33 35 35 36 36 4 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE 1. 1 Introduction This chapter lays the framework for this book by arguing that organizational change is developed within models and frameworks that inform our understanding of the subject. In this chapter we will learn that knowledge and practice of organizational change are influenced by assumptions derived from the models or perspectives we use.For example, if we regard change as a matter of systemic structural arrangements we can make in an organization, then we can see how the analogy of organism or biological system helps to inform our judgements. Because perspectives offer ways of seeing, they will inevitably organize our perception in line with the dominant analogy used. However, analogies are only partial knowledge claims. Four perspectives on change are cited in this chapter: why four perspectives in particular?The answer to that question is str aightforward but you need to understand at this point that a perspective is an overarching approach that contains a variety of theories that have become associated with it. You will see why these are the dominant perspectives once you have read the remainder of this section. First, the structural-functional perspective is the oldest approach to organizational design and therefore change. Like each perspective, it contains a variety of theories that attempted to resolve some of its difficulties as it developed.These theories include the hard systems, systems dynamics, cybernetics, soft systems, criticalsystems heuristics, and postmodern systems thinking (Jackson, 2003). The structuralfunctional perspective encourages us to think about structural arrangements and functional interrelationships within organizations. The development of the opensystems model in the 1950s assisted our understanding further by focusing on how inputs to an organization are transformed into outputs. This is u seful for thinking about how we might change tasks and relationships in a production process.The value of the structural-functional perspective lies in its ability to change the arrangement of tasks and procedures in relation to the customer or client specification. The advantage of the perspective lies in its ability to look at an organization as a control mechanism: that is, to understand the important structural components and to articulate the functional interrelationships between the parts. Inevitably, structural redesign will therefore influence the functions that each part produces for the whole. But the perspective has disadvantages also.Because it is a model for controlling operations, it is therefore mechanistic. It tends to ignore how motivations, behaviours, attitudes, and values contribute to effective performance. The multiple constituencies perspective emerged from dissatisfaction with the structural-functional perspective. Although it was initially associated with th e work of Cyert and March (1963), it increasingly came to adopt a range of theories associated with the action and motives of individual actors rather than with the action of systems per se.The multiple constituencies perspective refers to the way that complex organizations have to negotiate objectives with different groups of stakeholders who have overlapping and often conflicting needs. When we consider hospitals, health PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE trusts, postal services, public bodies, local government, and transnational companies, then we come to recognize that the organization’s needs are inextricably linked to various stakeholder groups. This affects how resources are managed and distributed, as well as how change might be facilitated to maximize efficiency and effectiveness.An investigation of how multiple constituencies bring their own interests and motivations into the organizational arena will help us to provide an informed approach to managing change by recognizing the various resource needs of different groups. We can recognize the advantage of this perspective in drawing attention to the various stakeholder needs but we can also recognize that it is limited to a partial analysis. It is less concerned with developing people. It also has a limited view of power. Consequently this reduces organizational change to consensual negotiation between pluralities of groups.Those academics and practitioners that adopt the Organizational Development perspective would share much with the two previous perspectives because it embraces both a systems approach and a focus on stakeholders and governance. However, it is distinguished by its methodology of action research as much as it is by its ethical approach to developing organizations through people. For the first time we begin to see people as resources to be developed rather than as simply costs on a balance sheet. This perspective emerged from the human relations approach, which focused on personal and grou p development.However, unlike the two previous perspectives, it argues that maximum efficiency and effectiveness cannot be achieved by dealing with tasks, procedures, and customers’ or clients’ needs without looking at the quality of management, leadership, communication, culture, motivation, and values. Because the Organizational Development (OD) perspective on change emerged out of human resource theory, it became a synthesis of structural functionalism and behavioural research. The two main contributions of this approach are the focus on social characteristics and ts methodology dedicated to a humanistic approach to change and development. OD is also associated with the idea of planned change and the need to clearly diagnose clients’ needs before making an intervention. These provide major advantages in thinking about change but they are also partial and limited to conceptualizing change as a matter of consensus, as does each perspective mentioned so far. The final perspective—Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change— reflects the challenges and assumptions of Critical Theory.It cannot be regarded as a unified perspective, as the others can, because it does not seek to offer solutions to change problems. But it does go further than any of the other perspectives in demonstrating that people, rather than systems, are the main element of analysis in any change theory. Each of the other perspectives tends to reify human action. By contrast, this perspective seeks to redress the balance by arguing that people are active agents of change. It also brings another important element under scrutiny.That is, each of the other perspectives focuses on rational change. This has implications for designing and planning change as a linear sequence of events. However, if change programmes ignore emergent processes that result more from conflict, flux, and uncertainty than from consensus and stability, then intervention strategies will have a limited and often 5 6 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE unintended effect. Because this perspective is derived from Critical Theory we should not assume that it is immune to criticism. The main criticism is that it does not offer solutions.It does not provide useful intervention strategies. It does, however, make us stop and think before we act. You should now be clear that each perspective contains a range of theories that share assumptions, methods, and approaches. These can be stated simply as: 1. A focus on systems and structures (the structural-functional perspective). 2. A focus on governance (the multiple constituencies perspective). 3. A focus on behavioural improvement through personal and Organizational Development (the OD perspective). 4.A focus on constant critique (Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change). A simple reminder of the focus is: systems, governance, behaviour, and critique. The argument throughout the book is that to manage change you need to un derstand these interweaving debates. In this chapter we will: †¢ Explain the benefits and limitations of change contained within the structural-functional perspective. †¢ Examine how a multiple constituencies perspective provides arguments for involving stakeholders in complex change initiatives. Explore the value of human resource and organization development interventions as well as their limitations in planned change initiatives. †¢ Appreciate why organizational change may be characterized better by conflict, flux, and uncertainty. †¢ Consider the source of creativity. †¢ Appreciate the role of Critical Theory in understanding organizational change. 1. 2 Perspectives on change 1. 2. 1 Modernity, progress, and change It is important to contextualize the four perspectives of this chapter by illustrating that each emerged from, or in reaction to, the process of modernism.The term ‘modernism’ was originally used to describe the new machine age of the early twentieth century, which reflected progress through the application of scientific principles, order, and control. Scientific principles emerged from the pursuit of rationality embedded in the philosophy of the Enlightenment. The twentieth century was influenced PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE by progressive movements in art and architecture, but the new age was eventually associated with negative qualities that, paradoxically, were linked to its greatest triumph—the machine age.The new machine age was characterized by large-scale movements, revolutions, and world wars which all proclaimed progress through the application of machine technology or through the metaphor of the machine as the embodiment of efficiency and effectiveness. This was no more apparent than in business and management, where modernity reflected the task of controlling large-scale organizations. Techniques or processes such as bureaucracy, Taylorism, and Fordism came to reflect the new managerialism of th e machine age in which the principles of measurement and calculation came to dominate thinking.This emphasis on rational calculation had advantages in the form of mass production of cheap goods but, to achieve this, the human cogs in the machine were alienated by a technology that largely ignored social practices. You should therefore be aware that the structural-functional perspective emerged at the time when modernism suggested progress through the application of rational principles. It should be no surprise, then, that it tended to focus on task and throughput by using the metaphor of organism as machine. The perspective referred to as multiple constituencies emerged in the 1960s.It was the first to challenge the naive rationalism of the structural-functional perspective by arguing that an organization is not equivalent to a biological entity and that therefore the organic model was not appropriate to organizations. An organization was better conceived as a ‘legal fictionâ €™ (Shafritz and Ott, 1991). This had the advantage of persuading us that progress is simply a result of social processes and that all organizations are no more than devices to achieve certain objectives. The perspective helped to establish the idea of change through governance.Organizational Development has been the main tradition of organizational change and has much to recommend it, such as a declared humanistic commitment to change. It has also developed useful techniques and methods, but its use of the biological model limits its critique. The perspective we call ‘Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change’ is united only by its objection to modernism. It therefore provides a useful counterbalance to the other perspectives by offering criticism of the conventional wisdom. But it also suggests that human volition and creativity are a long way from the modernist assumptions of progress. 1. 2. 2 Pathways to change Each perspective contains theories that lead to a change intervention. The phrase ‘change intervention’ refers to change actions taken at a strategic level to help an organization become more effective. A perspective can therefore be regarded as a model for understanding how a subject can be understood. Advocates of a perspective develop theories to inform their views and they construct methodologies to test the accuracy of their various theories within a perspective. However, each perspective is open to criticism precisely because it contains assumptions about organizational reality.Each is therefore valuable as a framework 8 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE Figure 1. 1 Pathways to change STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL CHANGE Change occurs for dysfunctional reasons when internal functions fail or when structures do not reflect the rational design of the best system INTERVENTIONS focus on the alignment of functional relationships and the structural re-design of the system to accommodate changing external environmental conditions MULTIPLE CONSTITUENCIES Change is a negotiated order and organizations are arenas in which internal groups and external stakeholders seek to exert influenceINTERVENTIONS focus on contractual relationships. A distinction is made between a formal contract and an informal or psychological contract ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Change is planned once needs are diagnosed INTERVENTIONS focus on both personal and Organizational Development and change CREATIVITY, VOLITION AND CRITICAL THEORY Change results from conflict not consensus INTERVENTIONS are replaced by critical analysis for change, but in the interest of validity we need to be cautious about the claims to certainty that each makes.We would be wise, therefore, to view these perspectives as pathways to understand organizational change. We can take the analogy further and suggest that each perspective represents a pathway through a minefield of conceptual difficulties. Each perspective is illustrated in Figure 1. 1. 1. 3 Structural-fun ctional change: changing structures and functions Structural-functional change is the oldest perspective on organizational change. This perspective is also known as structural-functional analysis. It is effectively a social-systems PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE iew of organizations as opposed to the mechanistic or closed-systems perspective of physics. Henry Fayol was one of the first writers to make the link between structure and function. In his 1916 book General and Industrial Management, he describes the relationship between organizations and biology in terms of an analogy. Thus he points out that, just as organisms evolve and become more sophisticated in their structural properties, so do organizations. We can see why the organic analogy is important to organizations when we consider Fayol’s description of specialization and differentiation.For example, [s]pecialization belongs to the natural order; it is observable in the animal world, where the more highly developed the creat ure the more highly differentiated its organs; it is observable in human societies where the more important the body corporate the closer its relationship between structure and function. As a society grows, so new organs develop destined to replace the single one performing all functions in the primitive state. (Fayol, 1916: 19) 9 Thus, as organizations grow and develop, they become much more complex and require new types of structure.In order to deal with this complexity, work has to be simplified through the division of labour. Some years later, structural-functional analysis viewed the study of organizations as the analysis of both structural and functional interrelationships between elements in an organizational system. Structural-functional analysis of an organization begins with the assumption that organizations are cooperative systems. Whilst they are constituted by individuals, this is less relevant than the fact that they are systems designed to coordinate the actions of in dividuals. They are better viewed, therefore, as adaptive organisms.This means that any organizational system ‘is deemed to have basic needs†¦ related to self-maintenance†¦ and†¦ self-defence’ (Selznick, 1948: 26). Selznick suggests that organizations, as systems, maintain themselves by means of five essential imperatives, described as follows: 1. The security of the organization as a whole in relation to social forces in its environment. This imperative requires continuous attention to the possibilities of encroachment and to the forestalling of threatened aggressions or deleterious (though perhaps unintended) consequences of the actions of others. 2.The stability of the lines of authority and communication. One of the persistent reference points of administrative decision is the weighing of consequences for the continued capacity of leadership to control and to have access to the personnel or ranks. 3. The stability of informal relations within the orga nization. Ties of sentiment and self-interest are evolved as unacknowledged but effective mechanisms for adjustment of individuals and subgroups to the conditions of life within the organization. These ties represent a cementing of relationships which sustains the formal 10 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE uthority in day-to-day operations and widens opportunities for effective communication. ‘Consequently, attempts to â€Å"upset† the informal structure†¦ will normally be met with considerable resistance. ’ 4. The continuity of policy and of the sources of its determination. For each level within the organization, and for the organization as a whole, it is necessary that there be a sense that action taken in the light of a given policy will not be placed in continuous jeopardy. Arbitrary or unpredictable changes in policy undermine the significance of (and therefore the attention to) day-to-day action by injecting a note of caprice.At the same time, the organization wi ll seek stable roots (or firm statutory authority, or popular mandate) so that a sense of the permanency and legitimacy of its acts will be achieved. 5. A homogeneity of outlook with respect to the meaning and role of the organization. To minimize disaffection requires a unity derived from a common understanding of what the character of the organization is meant to be. When this homogeneity breaks down, as in situations of internal conflict over basic issues, the continued existence of the organization is endangered.On the other hand, one of the signs of a ‘healthy’ organization is the ability to orient new members effectively and readily slough off those who cannot be adapted to the established outlook. (Selznick, 1948) These imperatives are the mechanisms of a stable ‘organic’ system that is applied by analogy to an organization. One particularly relevant assumption of this analogy, and indeed of structural functionalism in general, is that of compulsion. There is little room for individuals to exercise imagination because organizations are viewed as constraining mechanisms that compel people to act in a particular way.When viewed through a structural-functional frame, organizational analysis proceeds by following three basic assumptions, as indicated below. 1. Organizations are cooperative systems with adaptive social structures, made up of interacting individuals, subgroups, and formal and informal relationships. 2. Organizations contain variable aspects, such as goals, which are linked to needs and self-defence mechanisms. 3. Organizations are determined by constraints and characterized by transformations when adjustments to needs are required.Such adjustments are required to deal with dysfunctions caused by instability in the operating environment. The biological sciences were seen as rescuing social science from the laws of traditional Newtonian physics, which saw everything as a closed system (Katz and Kahn, 1966: 16). Consequ ently, the emergence of the open-systems model, which was influenced by von Bertalanffy’s ‘general system theory’, enables us to view organizations as continuous flows of inputs, transformations, and outputs beyond their own boundaries. In 1966 Katz and Kahn articulated the concept of an organization as anPERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE open system. This was reinforced by Thompson’s systems contingency perspective in 1967. What emerged was an idea of an organizational system as an artificial rational construction designed to improve work performance. Unlike the closed systems of physical sciences, social (and biological) systems depend on, and interact with, their external environments. For Katz and Kahn, the main difficulty in proactively managing strategic change results from the fact that organizations have in-built protective devices to maintain stability. Changing these patterns is very difficult.Unintended change often occurs when organizations drift from the ir original aims. As Katz and Kahn indicate: [t]he major misconception is the failure to recognize fully that the organization is continually dependent upon inputs from the environment and that the inflow of materials and human energy is not a constant. The fact that organizations have built-in protective devices to maintain stability and that they are notoriously difficult to change in the direction of some reformer’s desires should not obscure the realities of the dynamic interrelationships of any social structure with its social and natural environment.The very efforts of the organization to maintain a constant external environment produce changes in organizational structure. The reaction to changed inputs to mute their possible revolutionary implications also results in changes. (Katz and Kahn, 1966: 278) 1 1 The open-systems model expresses the relationship between the elements as indicated by Figure 1. 2. Figure 1. 2 The open-systems model of Katz and Kahn ENVIRONMENT T ask Technology INPUTS Human, financial information, materials Management OUTPUTS Products and services Structure People 12 UNDERSTANDING CHANGEThe organization has inputs that are then transformed through a variety of management functions. These are designed to achieve the best possible organizational design by coordinating the task, through the use of technology by people who are structured or organized in a way that is both efficient and effective. x Stop and think 1. 1 Identify an organization and illustrate its inputs, outputs, and transformational processes. Provide details on how the internal processes are managed and controlled. Following Katz and Kahn, the open-systems model contains eight characteristics: 1.Importing energy from the external environment. Thus, just as the biological cell receives oxygen from the bloodstream or the body takes in oxygen from the air and food from the external world, the organization draws energy from other institutions. 2. Throughput is a phr ase used in many organizations, meaning that, as open systems, organizations transform the energy available to them. Just as the body converts starch and sugar into heat and action, an organization takes raw inputs such as materials and people and transforms them by producing products or services.Katz and Kahn suggest that, just as the personality converts chemical and electrical forms of stimulation into sensory qualities, and information into thought patterns, so the organization creates a new product, or processes materials, or trains people, or provides a service. 3. Output is essentially the service or product. Just as the biological organism exports from the lungs physiological products like carbon dioxide that help to maintain plants in the immediate environment, the organization provides customers with an output they value. 4.Systems are cycles of events in which the product is exported into the environment, where it furnishes sources of energy for repetition of the cycle of activities. Thus energy is the exchange of inputs and outputs with the external environment. For example, raw materials and human labour are turned into products and services, which are then marketed for monetary return, which is then used to obtain more raw materials and labour and perpetuates the cycle of activities. 5. Entropy is a process described by Katz and Kahn as ‘a universal law of nature in which all forms of organization move toward disorganization or death’.For example, ‘all complex physical systems move toward simple random distribution of their elements and biological organisms also run down and perish’. Therefore the survival of the organization requires the ‘arrest of the entropic process’. This is overcome because the organization imports more energy from its environment than it expends. In other words, ‘social organizations will seek to improve their survival position and to acquire in their reserves a comfortable marg in of operation’. Organizations do go out of business but they can replenish themselves.As PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE Katz and Kahn point out, ‘social systems, however, are not anchored in the same physical constancies as biological organisms and so are capable of almost indefinite arresting of the entropic process. Nevertheless the number of organizations which go out of existence every year is large. ’ 6. Information input, negative feedback, and the coding process mean that all inputs are also ‘informative in character and furnish signals to the structure about the environment and about its own functioning in relation to the environment’.Furthermore, the ‘simplest type of information input found in all systems is negative feedback’, which ‘enables the system to correct its deviations from course’. Katz and Kahn see this as analogous to the digestive system, in which selective signals are absorbed or assimilated. Terms like ad aptation and assimilation reflect the biological analogy because an organization responds only to those signals to which it is adapted, and reacts to the information signals to which it is attuned.Katz and Kahn argue that, rather like the selection process in nature, the term coding reflects the selective mechanisms of a system by which incoming materials are either rejected or accepted and translated for the structure. 7. Organizations, like biological systems, are not motionless, so there can never be a true equilibrium. Instead, we must understand that organizations, like organisms, develop a steady state or ‘continuous inflow of energy from the external environment and a continuous export of the products of the system’.The biological analogy is illustrated by the ‘catabolic and anabolic processes of tissue breakdown and restoration within the body’ that ‘preserve a steady state so that the organism from time to time is not the identical organism i t was but a highly similar organism’. Related to this are what they call the ‘homeostatic processes’ for the regulation of body temperature. Thus, as external conditions of humidity and temperature vary, the temperature of the body remains the same because it is regulated by the endocrine glands. The steady state and dynamic homeostasis of organizations are regulated by the organization’s subsystems. . Organizations ‘move in the direction of differentiation and elaboration’. That is, in biological systems genetic change occurs: organisms move from primitive to complex arrangements in order to survive. Similarly, as organizations mature they become increasingly diffuse. Thus they ‘move toward the multiplication and elaboration of roles with greater specialization of function’. 13 1. 3. 1 An organization is a complex whole As Michael Jackson states, ‘a system is a complex whole the functioning of which depends upon its parts a nd the interactions of those parts’ (2003: 3).Broadly speaking, we can think of three types of system: †¢ Natural biological systems. †¢ Social systems, such as families and religious and political institutions, which are socially constructed entities designed to accommodate relationships between people. 14 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE †¢ Artificial or mechanical systems, such as built environments and information systems, which are designed to make improvements to living or work arrangements. One of the advantages of systems theory, as Jackson informs us, is that it is not reductive.That is, it does not seek to reduce complexity by breaking it down into its component parts. Systems theory seeks to understand phenomena as wholes and consequently the term ‘holism’ is sometimes used to illustrate that a system needs to be seen in its entirety. The idea of holism is articulated by Thompson (1967): Approached as a natural system, the complex organization is a set of interdependent parts which together make up a whole because each contribute something and receive something from a whole, which in turn is interdependent with some larger environment.Survival of the system is taken to be the goal, and the parts and their relationships presumably are determined through evolutionary processes. Dysfunctions are conceivable, but it is assumed that an offending part will adjust to produce a net positive contribution or be disengaged, or else the system will degenerate. Central to the natural-systems approach is the concept of homeostasis, or self stabilization, which spontaneously, or naturally, governs the necessary relationships among parts and activities and thereby keeps the system viable in the face of disturbances stemming from the environment. (Thompson, 1967: 283)Systems theory seeks to explain complex interrelationships among organizational elements and external variables by using quantitative techniques. Because they see them as continua lly changing dynamic equilibria, systems theorists therefore view organizations as designed to cope with and manage change. An example of this is Weiner’s model of an organization as an adaptive system. Weiner uses the term ‘cybernetics’ (from the Greek for ‘steersman’) to describe a study of structures and functions of control, and information processing systems in both animals and machines. Thus, such systems are able to regulate themselves.In biological systems this is a natural process, whereas an organization’s systems must be designed. The overly mechanistic approach to viewing artificial systems needs to be balanced against two concerns related to the environment in which the organization exists: 1. Organizations are also social systems: any technical system requires people to operate it. Consequently their needs must be designed into the technical system. 2. Organizations have contingencies. In other words, the technology used by the o rganization, the nature of the industry it operates in, the competences of thePERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE staff who work for it, their motivations and leadership are also important contingencies that affect an organization’s performance. Each concern reflects the view that any change interaction must incorporate these constraints into the design of the new (changed) systems model. For example, if an organization is seen as a social system and not simply a technical system, then we must come to recognize the way in which people have to live, work, and engage in some way with the technical system.For systems designers such as architects and computer programmers it is therefore important to involve the people affected by the system. 15 x Stop and think 1. 2 Think of a technical system that you might redesign if asked to do so by an organization. For example, this might be an IT system, a production system, use of a physical space, or an administrative system. If you do not involve in its design the people who will eventually use the system, what negative outcomes might emerge? The link between organizational systems design and contingency theory illustrates how systems theory developed from a simple biological analogy.Galbraith’s (1973) book made a clear link between the functional components, organizational structures, and contingent circumstances of an organization. For example, Galbraith’s approach invites us to look for: †¢ The type and quality of information required in conditions of certainty or uncertainty. †¢ The degree of interdependence between the various functional components. †¢ Mechanisms that enable organizational adaptation. Table 1. 1 illustrates how information within the system affects an organization’s ability to take action towards change. The degree to which hange can be planned depends upon the amount of reliable information in the system. When the quality of information is high, changes can be planned but are unlikely to be major; when conditions are unpredictable, information is unreliable and the degree of success in any change initiative is low. We can therefore state that the greater the level of uncertainty, the more the organization must make provisional judgements and be ready to change things quickly. Contingency theorists who work within this perspective view organizational change as the degree of control an organization has over circumstances.Thus we can formulate a simple question for this purpose: ‘how wide is the gap between the amounts of information required by this organization at this time? ’ If we take the 2008 world banking crisis as an example, we can illustrate this point. During the month of 16 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE Table 1. 1 Control over circumstances: situations where significant change is inevitable The likelihood of major strategic change is low when: The situation is highly predictable. Traditional roles and procedures guide action. The qua lity of information is high.The likelihood of major strategic change is high when: The situation is not predictable. New procedures are required. The quality of information is low. October 2008, protracted negotiations between President Bush and the US Senate representatives, unhappy with his initial plans, eventually resulted in a rescue package for US banks. This was followed by the British Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, partly nationalizing some UK banks. Members of the G7 countries lowered interest rates around the world at the same time, also attempting to find a coordinated approach to the world economic crisis.The reality was that, at the time, no one could realistically estimate its extent: the information gap was simply too large. No one really knew who owed money to whom; nor did anyone know what impact the banking crisis was likely to have on other sectors of the world economy. Thus, attempting to steer change was impossible because there was insufficient information to ma ke reliable decisions. Although this is an extreme example, many organizations face similar problems to varying degrees. In situations of severe unpredictability caused by lack of information, managing planned change becomes highly problematic.The solution, according to Galbraith, is to find new solutions: The ability of an organization to successfully coordinate its activities by goal setting, hierarchy, and rules depends on the combination of the frequency of exceptions and the capacity of the hierarchy to handle them. As task uncertainty increases, the number of exceptions increases until the hierarchy is overloaded. Then the organization must employ new design strategies. Either it can act in two ways to reduce the amount of information that is processed, or it can act to increase its capacity to handle more information.An organization may choose to develop in both of these ways. (Galbraith, 1973: 312) 1. 3. 2 Structural theory The structures of organizations are considered to b e amenable to change. Organizations are viewed as rational and should be designed to achieve their objectives. The Classical School of Management argued that all organizations should be designed scientifically. The main contributors to the school were Henry Fayol, PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE Charles Babbage, Daniel McCullum, Frederick Winslow Taylor, and Max Weber. For these writers, organizational efficiency was achieved through the rational design of organizations.The Classical School assumed that there was a best structure for any organization, related to the environment in which the organization operated. The design of an organization was related to specialization and to the division of labour. Specialization is the extent to which highly skilled operations and individuals are required. Because the design of organizations was seen as a purely rational activity, problems or dysfunctions were seen to result from structural imperfections or flaws that could be solved by changing the org anization’s structure.Furthermore, although the Classical School considered that a bureaucratic structure was the best means to achieve efficiency and effectiveness, by the 1950s this view was increasingly challenged. The first challenge emerged with the work of Burns and Stalker (1961), who were interested in the rapidly changing electronics industry in Britain, and in Scotland in particular. Their research revealed that organizations in stable operating environments are heavily dependent on control mechanisms and therefore require mechanistic structures.Conversely, the newer industries based on, or developing, micro-electronic technology required organic structures in order to meet situations that are changing. The message, therefore, was that the rate of organizational change is critical to organizations. Where they have to meet rapidly changing circumstances and conditions, and where technology is critical to their survival, then organic structures need to be designed. Th is would also be true today of the fashion industry, where styles change quickly and competition for change requires organizations to get goods into the high street quickly.In the following year Blau and Scott (1962) argued that organizations have both a formal structure and an informal aspect to them. The formal structure determines the standard rules and regulations: for example, a highly structured organization operating bureaucratic procedures is managed through complex rules, policies, frameworks, and desk instructions. However, they argued that it is impossible to understand how organizations are structured by simply looking at rules and regulations without understanding the informal aspect of the organization.Their argument was heavily influenced by Barnard’s (1938) book, The Functions of the Executive, and suggested that the informal organization reflects unconscious processes. In other words, habits, attitudes, and assumptions of people are critical to performance. T his was clearly an early recognition that change requires more than structural redesign because it suggested that senior managers have to align the structure with what we call today the organization’s culture. The earlier work of Max Weber in the 1920s reflected his concerns with specialization.By the 1960s academics used the word ‘differentiation’ to reflect this but also to indicate how specialization is affected by increasingly complex environments. In relation to organizational change, we can note that the process of differentiation— increased complexity of organization—suggests that diverse forces are responsible for pulling organizations apart. This process of differentiation therefore means that 17 18 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE organizational change is required in order to integrate the organization with its new environment.To put this more succinctly, differentiation requires integration. This particular concern was articulated by Lawrence and Lor sch (1969) in their book, Developing Organizations: diagnosis and action. It also reflects the emphasis on design since change planning is required to deal with uncertainty caused by rapidly changing circumstances. This was reinforced by Davis and Lawrence’s (1977) argument that a matrix organization was required when external change was forced upon organizations. Accordingly, they argue that change in design is therefore determined by three conditions: 1.Outside pressure for dual focus. What they mean by this is that some companies need to focus attention both on complex technical issues and on the unique requirements of the customer; this dual focus requires a matrix structure. 2. Pressures for high information-processing capacity. The second reason to adopt a matrix structure is a requirement for high information-processing capacity among an organization’s members. The failure to construct a matrix organization in such circumstances will lead to information overload . 3. Pressure for shared resources.When organizations are under pressure to achieve economies of scale, they need to find ways of utilizing scarce human resources to meet quality standards. Both systems theory and structural theory share the view that organizations are rational and serve utilitarian purposes. That is, organizations are viewed as a means to achieve efficiency and effectiveness. They do this by identifying clear goals. The structural-functional systems perspective is therefore described as rational because it assumes a relatively simple cause and effect relationship among variables related to functional integration and structural change.As a perspective, it is clear about what it seeks to achieve. Organizational change is relatively straightforward: we either change functional relationships in order to achieve harmony or we change the design of the organization in order to meet the complexity of its environment. 1. 4 Multiple constituencies: change by negotiation In a dvancing a critique of the structural-functional perspective Michael Keeley (1983) argues that it is common to model organizations after biological systems. In most texts organizations are depicted as ‘social actors’ who possess the distinguishing features of living beings such as goals and needs.By contrast, individuals are portrayed as functional ‘members’ filling roles and serving as ‘human resources’ to further the organization’s ends. The organic model is useful mainly for addressing survival needs, PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE but one difficulty is that it tends to confuse the goals of an organization with the goals of powerful individuals. The structural-functional perspective presents a reified and overrational picture of social systems. By contrast, the multiple constituencies perspective does not assume that organizations exist independently from the people who work for them or interact with them.Multiple constituency theory was firs t outlined by Cyert and March in their book A Behavioural Theory of the Firm (1963), which describes organizations as coalitions of self-interested participants. Organizational goals, they argue, change as a result of bargaining processes because an organization is a dynamic coalition of individuals and groups, all of which have different demands. The perspective focuses on how goals are achieved and whose interests are satisfied and affected by the actions taken in the name of the organization.If we think, therefore, of an organization containing a number of groups and external stakeholders, all of which have differing interests, then we can consider how organizational change affects each different group, or alternatively how each may make demands on an organization to change its strategy. The multiple constituencies perspective focuses on the way in which resources are managed and distributed among organizational members and stakeholders in the interests of governance. 19 x Stop a nd think 1. 3 Imagine that you start a new job as a travel executive and are required to visit overseas destinations six times a year.You chose this job because you were excited by the prospect of overseas travel. As an incentive, employees are permitted to stay in the destination for two days after they have completed their tasks. Consequently executives are motivated to choose an interesting destination. Your organization operates from two different sites in the UK. During your first year of employment you hear rumours that the person who allocates staff to destinations ‘cherry picks’ the best for herself and then for friends or colleagues who work with her at the main site.You begin to realize that the rumours have a ring of truth about them. What do you do? Try to ingratiate yourself with the decision maker by becoming friends? Offer to take on more work if she offers you one or two better destinations? Should you take the issue to her line manager at the risk of be coming unpopular? Or do you accept the situation for what it is and that life is not fair? How do you bargain for change? The multiple constituencies perspective criticizes the structural-functional approach for making it difficult to achieve conceptual clarity about what constitutes organizational effectiveness.For example, Connolly, Conlon, and Deutsch argue that effectiveness statements are evaluative and descriptive. Generally they are not attempts to answer the question ‘how is an entity X performing? ’ but usually ‘how well is entity X performing? ’ and often ‘how much better should entity X perform? ’ The central differentiation among current effectiveness statements is how they specify the evaluation criteria used to define how well the entity is performing or could perform (Connolly, Conlon, and Deutsch, 1980: 211). As a result, the multiple 20UNDERSTANDING CHANGE constituency view treats organizations as systems with differential asse ssments of effectiveness by different constituencies. Although the interests of internal groups (for example, executives, managers, production workers, and so forth) and external stakeholders (for example, clients, shareholders, government regulators, suppliers, and so forth) may overlap, they each have specific interests and priorities or goals they seek to pursue. Each constituency brings its own interests and motivations into the organizational arena.We can therefore consider organizations as webs of fluid interactions between different groups of people whose interests keep changing. The multiple constituencies approach is therefore a means to identify the actions and motivations of people. More importantly, it reflects organizational change as a continuously negotiable order because interests and coalitions change over time. Although the multiple constituencies perspective originated with Cyert and March, it is rooted in the social contract tradition of political and moral argum ent.The idea of contract theory emerged in the seventeenth century with the political theorists Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In the twentieth century such theories have become the basis for political theorists (as we will see in Chapter 7) and writers concerned with corporate ethics (see Chapter 2). 1. 4. 1 Stakeholder interests Since stakeholders reflect dynamic interests, change agents need to learn how to interact with them. There are various ways of doing this. For example, Mitroff (1983) suggests seven approaches.These are: 1. The imperative approach, which identifies stakeholders who feel strongly about an organization’s proposed policies or actions. This approach requires making a list of as many stakeholders as possible and interacting with them to resolve concerns. 2. The positional approach, which identifies stakeholders who occupy formal positions in a policy-making structure. For example, health trusts, schools, colleges, universities, and charities are required to have boards of governors who must oversee the operations of such organizations.Many boards of governors can be identified from organization charts or legal documents. 3. The reputational approach entails asking various knowledgeable or important people to nominate those they believe to have a stake in the organization. 4. The social participation approach identifies individuals or groups of stakeholders who may have an interest in a policy-related issue for the organization. For example, members of committees, and people who might normally be excluded because they are not so visible, or who do not normally have the opportunity to articulate their views, will be represented. 5.The opinion-leadership approach identifies individuals who have access to leverage of some sort. Examples include informed professionals, commentators, and editors of important newspapers or journals. PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE 6. The demographic approach identifies stakeholders by charac teristics such as age, sex, race, occupation, religion, place of birth, and level of education. 7. The focal organization approach seeks to identify individuals and organizations that have important relationships with the focal organization. That is, suppliers, employees, customers or clients, allies, competitors, regulators.The multiple constituencies perspective suggests that, prior to any change initiative, change agents should analyse the following issues: †¢ The purposes and motivations of a stakeholder. †¢ The resources of a stakeholder. These will include material, symbolic, and physical resources, as well as informational resources and skills. †¢ Special knowledge and opinions of the stakeholder. †¢ Stakeholders’ commitments to the organization and expertise. †¢ Relationships between stakeholders, focusing particularly on the amount of power (or authority), responsibility, and accountability they have. The extent of the network of interdepende nt relationships among stakeholders. †¢ The extent to which a change in strategy can be identified in the interests of any one particular stakeholder. 21 Such an analysis of stakeholder interests suggests that whilst stakeholders are generally supportive and have an interest in the organization, they can also become a negative influence on it. They might indeed reflect a threat and become a barrier to organizational change. Mitroff therefore suggests a number of options for influencing or changing the views and actions of particular stakeholders. We can: †¢ Simply exercise power and authority by ommanding the stakeholder to comply. †¢ Appeal to reason and therefore attempt to persuade the stakeholder. †¢ Engage in tactical bargaining with a stakeholder. †¢ Negotiate in order to reach a compromise. †¢ Engage in problem solving by sharing information, debating, and arriving at mutually agreed perceptions. The multiple constituencies perspective reflects a view of social systems in which people take actions and engage in activities to maximize their own interests. They also collude with others and engage in purposeful activity. Negotiation of organizational change revolves around three central issues: 1.Changing organizational objectives requires that leaders be able to re-evaluate the organization’s current mission, purposes, objectives, and goals, and mobilize action through inspiration. Such leaders need to embrace inspirational leadership. 22 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE 2. The ability to develop and mobilize intellectual capital by using the combined resources held by all stakeholders creatively. This should include the identification and cultivation of scarce resources, skills, and capital. 3. The ability to sustain cooperation and to eliminate conflict among stakeholders so that ethical, moral, and cooperative understanding is achieved.The perspective argues that it is constituencies of people, rather than organizations, that h ave goals and objectives. Consequently, it moves us away from the problem of reification, because stakeholder interests must be negotiated. Yet it still assumes that people act rationally through an appeal to the common good. The perspective draws us towards interventions that focus on a concern with organizational and personal values, social justice, and the distribution of rights and obligations. It provides a useful way forward for organizations in the public domain that are subjected to public scrutiny through governance. . 5 Organizational Development: the humanistic approach to change Organizational Development (OD) is derived from human resource theory or organizational behaviour. It dates back to the Hawthorne experiments, which began in the Western Electrical Company in 1927. Elton Mayo and his team began these experiments by using the same assumptions as the structural-functional perspective: that is, they initially sought to investigate improvements to organizational effi ciency by redesigning an organization’s environment along scientific principles.The experiments focused on rational pragmatic concerns such as technology and work performance, the rate of flow of materials, and throughput of a factory system. One can therefore recognize the early development of open-systems theory and structural design within these experiments. Their lack of success meant that the problem of efficiency and effectiveness was refocused towards socio-psychological factors, such as group norms. One interesting source dating back to 1926 was Mary Parker Follett’s description of ‘The Giving of Orders’ (1926).Follett argued that psychology could make an important contribution to understanding motivational relationships in the workplace. One example she discusses is the importance of understanding the law of the situation. Once this is discovered, better attitudes follow. She suggested that giving orders in a positive manner facilitated more harmo nious attitudes within the workplace. But related concerns that began with the Second World War later paved the way for a more sophisticated social science concerned with behaviour in organizations.In particular, a concern to identify effective leadership and to enhance workgroup relationships was paramount because of the American army’s focus on morale. As a result, many academics emerged from this tradition with a clear focus on the relationship PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE between leadership, motivation, and group dynamics. The investigation of individual and organizational needs was part of this use of applied social science. An early example was Maslow’s research, which resulted in his paper ‘A Theory of Human Motivation’ (1943).The awareness that human needs impact on organizations was a theme developed further in McGregor’s The Human Side of Enterprise (1957). By the late 1960s and 1970s OD emerged from this behavioural research as a distinct disci pline. Whilst it focused on harmonizing individual and organizational needs, it also readily adopted the open-systems framework of the structural-functional perspective. French and Bell (1978) were largely responsible for articulating this approach when they characterized the perspective as a mixture of open-systems theory with humanistic values.Today, we can discern six essential characteristics of OD. These are: 1. A methodology informed largely by Action Research—a term coined by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s. 2. Interventions should only result from careful organizational diagnosis (Tichy, Hornstein, and Nisberg, 1976). 3. A recognition that effective change requires process consultation (Schein, 1995) rather than negotiation through an individual in order to achieve corporate social responsibility in change initiatives.It should be noted that this is in line with OD’s humanistic approach to change. 4. An awareness of barriers to personal growth and organizational change , championed largely by Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1973). 5. An emphasis on personal and organizational learning in contrast to training, proposed by Reg Revans (1982). 6. A recognition that groups and culture will influence change initiatives, articulated by Lewin (1951) and Schein and Bennis (1965). OD emerged as a distinctive discipline for managing change.It did so initially by adopting experiential approaches such as T-groups (training groups) and Lewin’s Force Field Analysis as a technique for managing organizational transitions. Action Research encouraged employees to develop a collaborative approach to diagnosing problems and engaging in action learning. Argyris’s book on Intervention Theory and Method (1970) is a comprehensive review of process-consultation techniques articulated by Schein (1995) and intervention techniques that became associated with the idea of planned, organization-wide change.Such change strategies were ‘managed from the top’ in o rder to ‘increase organizational effectiveness and health’ through interventions in the organization’s processes using behavioural science knowledge (Beckhard, 1969). Lewin’s (1951) three stages of change—unfreeze, change, refreeze—reflects the essence of the traditional OD approach through which a clear goal or destination is identified and cascaded to the organization’s members. This has been described as a linear model of change (Marshak, 1993) that tends to omit the 23 24 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE untidy parts of the process that do not fit neatly into Lewin’s framework’ (Inns 1996: 23). Most critics of Lewin’s planned change model make this argument. However, we must be cautious about this since, as we will see in Chapter 3, Lewin did not apply this approach to organization-level change. Often, OD proceeds with problem identification through the application of Action Research at the individual, the group, or the or ganizational level. Following careful diagnosis, intervention strategies are designed to deal with an organizational problem by applying various techniques.At the individual level, behaviour modification theory is often used to encourage personal growth. At the group level, intervention strategies are informed by analysis of group dynamics, whilst at the organizational level, strategic interventions are designed to manage strategic change through the application of technology, structural change, or change to human resources. We can understand how these interventions work by exploring them in greater depth. 1. 5. 1 Intervention strategies at the individual level Strategies at the individual level were influenced by behaviour modification theory.The purpose of this technique is to increase the frequency of desired behaviours and reduce the frequency of undesired behaviours. Behaviour modification therefore seeks to modify the behaviours of individuals by training people to recognize a positive stimulus in order to provoke a desired response. It can also be used to change an individual’s reaction to fears and phobias. Intervention strategies used instead of behaviour modification theory include personal and management development techniques such as Lewin’s Force Field Analysis and learning interventions designed to improve personal learning. Stop and think 1. 4 We rarely remember modifying our own behaviour but we do this all the time. Think about the last time you learned a new skill. How difficult was this at first? During the learning process how did you modify your own behaviour or attitudes? How did evaluation lead to improvement? 1. 5. 2 Intervention strategies at the group level At the group level, intervention strategies originated from studies of group dynamics including armed forces personnel, industrial workers, and professional groups. Group dynamics was first defined by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s.Observations of groups led Lewin to note th at groups develop personalities as a result of their unique composition. Change was therefore more likely when the group as a whole made a collective decision to have its members change their behaviours. This was far more effective in producing the desired changes than more formal techniques such as lectures and PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE instruction. Lewin’s work became the foundation for training in group skills, sensitivity training, teambuilding, and OD. Groups therefore can be a major influence on change, or can inhibit change.However, the capability of a group to respond flexibly to change will depend on the degree to which its members: †¢ Explore problem-solving alternatives. †¢ Are motivated to achieve the objectives of the group. †¢ Make an effort to learn how to change. †¢ Discover what specifically needs to be changed to meet current demands. †¢ Are prepared to experiment. 25 1. 5. 3 Intervention strategies at the organizational level At the or ganizational level, a greater depth was provided by a focus on planned change interventions.Planned change strategies, according to Chin and Benne (1976), emerged from the Enlightenment tradition with the application of rational thought to interventions in the modern world. In other words, changing things requires an application to reason. Associated with this was the pursuit of social progress. Chin and Benne describe a central element common to all planned change programmes as ‘the conscious utilisation and application of knowledge as an instrument or tool for modifying patterns and institutions of practice’ (1976: 22).Planned change interventions are therefore extremely varied but they fall under three broad headings: 1. Empirical–rational interventions, such as political interventions giving rise to new